Toxigenic Clostridia in foodborne disease: characterization, exposure, burden, control and detection

Abstract

Clostridia include several toxigenic bacterial species recognized as significant human pathogens, notablyClostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, and Clostridioides difficile. Clostridia are commonly identified invarious food and many environmental niches. Unlike other common bacterial foodborne pathogens, suchas Salmonella, Campylobacter and Listeria, clostridia produce dormant structures known as spores that enablesurvival under harsh conditions. These spores persist for a long time, perhaps decades, in the farm andprocessing environments and from there, they may contaminate foods. Furthermore, spores are resistant tocommon food safety control measures such as cooking, pasteurization, and certain sanitizers.This document has been prepared to provide a comprehensive review of the global status of foodborneclostridia. The focus is specifically on C. botulinum and other botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT)-producingspecies, C. perfringens and C. difficile, with the aim of providing a detailed analysis of their prevalence,associated risks and implications for food safety and public health. This review encompasses an extensiveexamination of peer-reviewed scientific literature, epidemiological data, and recent reports. It also includesan assessment of the epidemiology of outbreaks, and current detection and control methods for pathogenicClostridia in food systems. The document is structured to provide a clear and detailed overview of the currentstate of knowledge, highlighting critical areas for future research and policy development to address thechallenges posed by foodborne Clostridia.